IOSR-JESTFT   Volume-9 ~ Issue-3 ~ March 2015

Abstract: This study is conducted to assess the quality of groundwater in Damboa town, Borno State, Nigeria. In doing this, a resistivity method of Geophysical survey of major part of the town was conducted to determine the depth of the groundwater in the area. Also, 20 water samples from 5 wells and 15 boreholes in the town were analysed for some recommended parameters by the World Health Organization for safe water consumption. The results of the geophysical survey showed that all the wells in the area have their sources from the upper aquifer (30–100 m depth) while sources of water in boreholes are from either the Middle Aquifer ( 270- 330m depth) or the lower aquifer ( 425–530 m depth). The results of the geochemical analysis and interpretation of the water samples, using Omisoft and excel plots, show that the major contaminants of groundwater in Damboa town are Manganese and nitrate . While no physiological effects due to high level of Manganese in drinking water have been established in humans, excess nitrate in drinking water can cause methaemoglobinanaemia in infants below three months (WHO, 2008). Due to high concentration of nitrate, none of the water from the wells and about 53% of the water samples from the boreholes in Damboa town is in conformity with the acceptable international standard for safe water consumption. However, the duration and rate of consumption of this high concentration of nitrate in drinking water that will be detrimental to human health is unknown.

Keywords: Assessment, Groundwater, Quality, Damboa, Aquifer

[1]. Arabi, Suleiman Abdullahi; Funtua, Idris Isa; Alagbe, Solomon Ayodele; Zabosrki, Peter; and Dewu, Bala Bello Muhammad (2010). Investigation of Groundwater quality for Domestic and Irrigation purposes around Gubrunde and Environs, northeastern Nigeria. Journal of American Science, 6(12).
[2]. Babaji, I. and Ndubusi, O.L. Self-reliance in community water supply. Proceedings of Seminar on Engineering for community Development, Nigerian Society for Engineers. Maiduguri. 1988.
[3]. Water Aid (2003).Groundwater Quality: Nigeria. British Geological Survey.
[4]. S. Adamu, M. Allamin, A. Sani And M .V. Joseph(2013). Evidence of Drawdown Cone in Chad Formation of Chad Basin of Northeastern Nigeria. Research Journal in Engineering and Applied Sciences 2(3)230-23.
[5]. Stumn W and Morgan JI (1981.). Aquatic chemistry: an introduction emphasizing chemical equilibria in natural waters. New York: Wiley-Interscience P. 780.
[6]. K. Yusuf, I. B. Goni , M. Hassan (2014). The Declining Middle Zone Aquifer of the Southwestern Chad Basin in the last Millennium. IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics, Volume 2, Issue 2 Ver. I. (Mar-Apr. 2014), PP 67-75.

Summary: Organophosphorus pesticides are heavily employed worldwide for their broad insecticidal spectrum and remains a major environmental pollutant. The degradation efficiency of bacteria isolated from pesticide contaminated agricultural paddy field soil was investigated against organophosphorus pesticide acephate. Five isolates identified as Lysinibacillus fusiformis ADI-01, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes ADI-03, Pseudomonas species ADI-04, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes ADI-06 and atypical VP negative Bacillus cereus ADI-10 were capable to degrade organophosphorus pesticide acephate up to 500 ppm concentration in mineral salt medium. The growth was evaluated by absorbance value, plating on mineral salt agar containing acephate. The degradation of pesticide was further monitored by HPLC analysis. The results reveal the potential of these bacteria on degradation of pesticide and lead to the development of bioremediation strategy to minimize pesticide contamination on land.

Keywords: Acephate, Organophosphorus pesticide, Biodegradation, Bacillus cereus, Lysinibacillus fusiformis, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes.

[1]. I.Y. Dugje, F. Ekeleme , A.Y. Kamara, L.O. Omoigui, A. Tegbaru, I.A. Teli and J.E. Onyibe, Guide to safe and effective use of pesticides for crop production in Borno State, Nigeria. 23pp, 2008. http://old.iita.org/cms/articlefiles/92-Pesticide%20guide%20web%20final.pdf
[2]. Environews forum, Killer environment, Environmental Health Perspectives 107(2), 1999, A62-A63.
[3]. P.P. Kanekar, B.J. Bhadbhade, N.M. Deshpande and S.S. Sarnaik, Biodegradation of organophosphorus pesticide, Proceedings- Indian national Science Academy part B70, 2004, 57-70.
[4]. J.R. Reigart, Recognition and management of pesticide poisonings DIANE Publishing, 2009.
[5]. M.P. Ramanathan and D. Lalithakumari, Complete mineralization of methylparathion by Pseudomonas sp. A3, Appl Biochem Biotechnol 80, 1999, 1-12. doi:10.1385/ABAB:80:1:1
[6]. M. Mahajna, G.B. Quistad and J.E. Casida, Acephate insecticide toxicity: safety conferred by inhibition of the bioactivating carboxyamidase by the metabolite methamidophos, Chem Res Toxicol 10, 1997, 64-69. doi: 10.1021/tx9601420
[7]. J.H. Yen, K.H. Lin and Y.S. Wang, Potential of the insecticides acephate and methamidophos to contaminate groundwater, Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 45, 2000, 79-86. doi: 10.1006/eesa.1999.1846

Summary: Kerala people have a consumer oriented culture followed by the increased incomes, but on the other side the inflation rate is very high.Above 80 per cent of the households in rural Kerala have calorie intake lower than prescribed daily consumption value of 2400 Kcal.So food security of the people is very important. It's very difficult to manage the family budget of the ordinary people because of the increased prices. The compromise on the expenditure on food items always increases the other side expenditure the health expenditure. The health expenditure increases heavily if the family has at least any one sick member which influences the family budget very badly. If the govt. provide compensation in the form of food subsidy better provided with nutritious food it should be highly recommended than giving money directly or it can replace upcoming health expenditure.

Keywords: Compensatory Public distribution System, Food security,Required Minimum Expenditure.

[1]. Tina Edwin, "Kerala spends more on durables: NSS".The economic timesTNN Jan 27, 2003, 10.08am, IST.
[2]. "Kerala seeks more time to implement Food Security bill". Friday, June 13, 2014, Mathrubhumi.com
Web sites [3]. mospi.nic.in/rept%20_%20pubn/505_final.pdf [4]. www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/docs/pdf/reports/nss/nss64.pdf
[5]. http://www.downtoearth.org.in/node/45134
[6]. 6.http://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/s1/3143-national-food-security-act-will-be-implemented-in-kerala-from-2nd-october
[7]. 7.http://zeenews.india.com/news/kerala/kerala-ration-dealers-announce-protest-over-food-security-bill_864571.html
[8]. http://indiabudget.nic.in/ub2013-14/eb/npe.pdf.

Summary: The finite fresh water resource available to cities is under stress and projected to worsen. For Indian cities water available for domestic use is marginalized in the backdrop of its dynamic population growth. It has been well established that current centralized practice of water supply, sanitation and storm water drainage is unsustainable in economic and environmental terms if domestic water security is to be assured. In the 'Soft Path' of water proposed by Peter Gleick, a decentralized, people centric and integrated approach to deliver varying qualities of water for use is emphasized. Herbert Giraldet advocates the cyclic metabolism for utilizing resources to make cities more sustainable. Unlike the current linear metabolism in cities which leads to large quantities of waste, the suggestion is to move towards technologies which will enable cyclic metabolism to ensure a zero waste scenario. In the first part the paper briefly demonstrates the possibility of using grey water, rain water and city supply, in a neighborhood to optimize throughputs without reducing the quantity of water available for each activity. Thereafter the paper examines the issue of rainwater availability for neighborhood cyclic metabolism in coastal Chennai and interior New Delhi. Due to climate change the overall quantum of monsoon rainfall has reduced due to weakening of the Tibetan anticyclone. This has lead to long term rainfall variation with reduced rain in interior cities and increased rain in coastal cities. This paper will examine the implications of long term variation of rainfall on rain water use for the practice of cyclic metabolism.

Keywords: Domestic Use, Soft Path, Neighborhood, Cyclic Metabolism, Rainwater, Co-efficient of Variability

[1]. Robin Clarke and Janet King, The Atlas of Water, Earthscan Publications ltd., London, 2004, p. 20.
[2]. FAO, Aquastats 2003 as accessed on 29th October, 2006. <www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aqastat/countires/india>
[3]. UNESCO World Water Assessment Program 2003, Water for People, Water for Life: The United Nations World Water Development Report, UNESCO and Berghahn Books, Paris, 2003, p. 13
[4]. Herbert Girardet, Urban Sustainability: Cities, People, Planet, Schumacher Lectures, Liverpool (UK), 2000, as accessed on 20-3- 2009 <www.schumacher.org.uk/transcrips/shumlec00_liv_CitiesPeoplePlanet_Her
[5]. Herbert Girardet, '"The Metabolism of Cities" from Creating Sustainable Cities (1999)', Stephan M Wheeler and Timothy Beatly (ed), The Sustainable Urban Development Reader, Routledge, London, 2004, p. 125 – 132.
[6]. Herman E. Daly, Towards Steady State Economy, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1973.
[7]. Peter H Gleick, 'The Changing Water Paradigm: A look at Twenty-first Century Water Resource Development', Water International, Volume 25, no.01, March 2000, 127-138, p.128.

Summary: The Protein requirement for three different size groups of Macrobrachiun idae viz. small, medium and large were studied. The feeding experiment was conducted for 41 days and the prawns were fed with 12 types of formulated diets containing various protein levels i.e., 21,23,25,27,29,31,35,37,39,41 and 43 % using the fish meal as major protein ingredients. The small size prawn ( 327.22±60 mg) reared in 40.46% dietary protein showed the best growth, while in medium size (1266.67± 98 mg) at 38.27% dietary protein level and large size prawn (2968.52±13 mg) showed the best growth at 36.43% dietary protein level. Quadratic regression analysis also revealed the same protein level as their protein requirement. The specific growth rate (SGR) in all the protein level tested increased as the protein level increased in the formulated diets. Eventually, the SGR increased while the food conversion ratio (FCR) decreased and vice versa. The protein intake (PI) of the prawn showed a positive correlation with increased protein level where as the protein efficiency ratio (PER) showed variegated results. But the higher protein intake of the prawns and PER were greatly influenced by dietary protein levels.

Keywords: Dietary protein level, Protein requirement, size groups of Macrobrachiun idae.

[1]. Ahmed Ali,S.1998. Farm-made feed in Aquaculture. The technologies to reckon with in rural
development. pp. 452-460. In : M.S.Hameed and B.M.Kurup (Eds.). Technological Advancement in Fisheries. Publn. No.1. School. Indl. Fish. Cochin Univ. of Science and Technology, Cochin.
[2]. Aranyakananda,P.1993. Dietary protein and energy requirements of Penaeus vannamei and the optimal protein to energy ratio. Ph.D . Dissertation, Taxas A & M universlty, College station, Texas, U.S.A.
[3]. Ashokkumar,S.,Mayavu,P.,Ramesh,S., and Sugesh,S. 2011.Effect of different protein levels on the juveniles prawn with special reference to Penaeus indicus. World Journal of Fish and Marine sciences 3 (1):37-43.
[4]. Brett,J.R and T.D.Groves.1979.Physiological energetic. In: W.S.Hoar, D.J.Randall and J.R. Brett (eds.). Fish physiology. Vol.8. Academic Press. London. pp.280-344.
[5]. Cousin,M.,Cuzon,G.,Blanchet,E.,Ruelle,F.,AQUACOP.,1993. Protein requirements following an optimum dietary energy to protein ratio for Penaeus vannmei juveniles. In:Proceedings of the Aquaculture feed Processing and Nutrition Workshop: Fish Nutrition in Practice (Kaushik,S.J. & Luquet,P. eds.), pp. 599-606. INRA, Paris, France.

Summary: This study assessed the extent of clay deposits in soil pores of different landuses arising from the sweeping action of surface erosion in rural watershed of Biase, Cross River State of Nigeria. The accumulation of clay particles in soil layer has the potential of lowering the infiltration rate of soils with threats on overland flow, water logging, erosion and general decline in regional land productivity. The clay based equation, developed by William, Jones and Dyke (1984) was used to evaluates soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) as a measure of the relationship between the effects of clay deposits in soil layers and soil permeability during storm. Soil samples were taken at depths of between 0-30cm across landuses for laboratory analysis to establish percentage deposits of clay. The values of infiltration data were also used in the estimation process. The result showed the Ksat values of 4.9 and 0.96 (fallowland), 2.4 and 0.89 (floodplain) and 9.0 and 1.3 (forest). This indicate moderate deposits of clay colloidal materials in soil layers at the moment though not devoid of future threat especially in rural landuse practices replete with crude farming practices (slash and burn agriculture). Sustainable land management should be evolved to avert this threat.

Keywords: Clay deposits, saturated hydraulic conductivity, clay based equation, Infiltration data.

[1]. Agnihotri, R. C. Yadar, R. C. (2002). Evaluation of Infiltration capacity of usifluvent soils susceptible to gully erosion. Hydrological Science, 37(6) 599-606.
[2]. Amajor, L. C. (1987). The Eze-Aku Sandstone ridge of south eastern Nigeria.Nigeria journal of mining and geology, 23, 17-26.
[3]. Antigha, N. R. B. (2007). Infiltration Characteristics of Selected soils in Cross River State, Nigeria and their implication for sustainable crop production. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Calabar, Calabar-Nigeria.
[4]. Ayoade, J. O. (2004). Tropical hydrology and water resources Ibadan; Agbo Area Publishers.
[5]. Bonsu, M. (2002).A study of textured based equation for estimating the saturated hydraulic conductivity of Alfisol in Sudan Savanna ecological zone.Ghana hydrological Science, 37 (6) 599-605.
[6]. Ekwueme, B. N. (2004). Filed Geology and Geological Map Production and Interpretation Calabar Bachudo Science.
[7]. William, J. R. Jones, C. A. and Dyke, P. T. (1984).A modeling approach to determining the relationship between erosion and soil productivity. Agricultural engineers, 4, 129-144.
[8]. Wosten, J. H. M. Pachepsky, Y. A. and Rawls, W. J. (2001).Pedotransfer functions: bridge gap between available basic soil data and missing soil hydraulic characteristics Journal of hydrology 251(3-4): 123-150.

Summary: This paper examined the structural stability of forest soil by applying Kostiakov's (1932) infiltration equation on measured infiltration values from the fieldin Abine, Biase, Cross River State in Nigeria. The behavior of soil structure or profile condition is paramount for scientific investigations, which is needful in the construction industry, agricultural land use and solid mineral resources inventory. Very often environmental hazards as landslide, flooding, building collapse and decline in crop yield emanate from the inadequate assessment and evaluation of soil's physical properties, before the commencement of human activities on a given land. Adopting this equation in this study, was an attempt to evaluate the structural conditions of forest soils of the region, under different hydrological regime prior to decision making on landuse and management to satisfy various stakeholders' interests.

[1]. Akintola, F. O. (1974). The parameters of Infiltration equations of Urban land surfaces. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
[2]. Akintoye O. A ,Ukata , S. U and Esomonye, H. I. (2012) 'Effects of Land-Use on the Infiltration Capacity of Coastal Plain Soils of Calabar, Nigeria', International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, Vol.2 :February,2012 , 80-84
[3]. Amajor, L. C. (1987). The Eze-Aku Sandstone Ridge of South Eastern Nigeria.Nigeria Journal of Mining Geology, 23, 17-26.

Summary: The dye degradation and decolorization processes, which include many physical and chemical methods having inherent drawbacks, like costing, economicall unfeasible (require more energy and chemicals), unable to remove some of the recalcitrant dyes and production of large amount of sludge which if not properly treated, in turn can cause secondary pollution. So, biological degradation, being eco-friendly and inexpensive method, is considered as an effective method for the removal of toxic azo dyes. Our present study is therefore aimed to isolate azo dye decolorizing bacteria from dyeing industry effluent and to assay their dye decolorization capability in order to use them as an efficient bio agent for decolorizing and mineralizing toxic azo dyes. In this research we also tried to determine the physicochemical analysis of textile dye effluent. We tried to determine the BOD and COD of the collected effluent samples, which were found to range from 50 to 100 ppm and 200 to 400 ppm. Temperature of the three collected samples was found to vary from 26°C to 36°C and pH was in the range of 8.6 to 9.7. Total bacterial count was found within the range of 1.3x105 (CFU/ml) to 9.2 x 105(CFU/ml). For the purpose of studying dye decolorization assay, twelve bacterial colonies were isolated on the basis of their unique colony features from the collected effluent samples and from them seven bacterial isolates were selected by further screening method and observed their degradation on Novacorn Orange C3R dye.

Keywords: BOD, COD, Microbial Species, Novacorn Orange, Textile Dye.

[1]. Pagga, U.; Brown, D. The degradation of dyestuffs. Chemosphere 1986, 15, 479–491.
[2]. Banat, I.M.; Nigam, P.; Singh, D.; Marchant, R. Microbial decolourization of textile-dye-containing effluents. Bioresour. Technol. 1996, 58, 217–227.
[3]. Dos Santos, A.B.; Cervantes, F.J.; van Lier, J.B. Review paper on current technologies for decolourization of textile wastewaters: Perspectives for anaerobic biotechnology. Bioresour. Technol. 2007, 98, 2369–2385.
[4]. Correia, V.M.; Stephenson, T. & Judd, S.J. (1994). Characterization of textile wastewaters – a review. Environmental Technology, Vol.15, pp.917-929.
[5]. Chung, K.T. &Cerniglia, C.E. (1992). Mutagenicity of azo dyes: Structure-activity relationships. Mutation Research/ Reviews in Genetic Toxicology, Vol. 277, No. 3, pp. 201–220, ISSN 0165-111
[6]. Zollinger, H. (1991). Color chemistry: syntheses, properties and applications of organic dyes and pigments. 3nd ed., Wiley – VCH, ISBN 978 3906 39023 9, New York, USA..

Summary: Tree slenderness coefficient (TSC) remains a fundamental attribute for determining tree and stand stability among exotic coniferous species such as Pinus caribaea in Nigeria. The relationship between the TSC and tree growth characteristics (TGCs) of Pinus caribaea (morelet) were investigated within Fifteen (15) Temporary Sampled Plots (TSPs) of 20m x 20m (0.04ha) of three age series (1990, 1991 and 1997) in Omo Forest Reserve, Nigeria. Five Hundred and Two (502) trees were sampled using random sampling method and tree growth characteristics such as diameter at breast height (DBH), total height (THT), merchantable height (MHT), Stem quality (SQ), crown length (CL) and crown diameter (CD) were measured while other tree characteristics such as basal area (BA), volume (VOL), tree slenderness coefficient (TSC), crown projection area (CPA) and crown ratio (CR) were estimated using their respective empirical formula. The quantitative data collected were subjected to descriptive analysis, correlation and regression-residual analyses to determine the relationship between the TSCs and TGC among the age series. The results of the investigation showed significant differences(P<0.05) in the TGCs within and across the age series of the Pinuscaribaea, and TSCs varied significantly across the age series with 1990 pine having the minimum mean value of 28.32 ± 0.602 and the TSC maximum mean value of 38.64 ± 0.464was found within 1997 pine plantation. The TSCs were found to be negatively correlated with DBH, age and all crown attributes across the three age series. Tree height attributes including THT, MHT and SQ were however found to be positively correlated with TSCs across the study area. Indeed the information of TSC and TGCs among Pinus caribaea in Nigeria proffer reasonable options for solving evolving wind throw potential among many exotic species in Nigeria.

Keywords: Tree slenderness coefficient, exotic coniferous, relationship, growth attributes

[1] Oteng-amoako, A. A.and Brink, M. 2008.PinuscaribaeaMorelet. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Louppe, D., Oteng-Amoako, A.A. & Brink, M. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressourcesvégétales de l'Afriquetropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands.
[2] Wang, Y., Titus S. J.,and Lemay V. M. 1998 Relationship Between Tree Slenderness Coefficients and Tree or Stand Characteristics for Major species in Boreal Mixed Forest. Can. J For. Res. 28: Pp. 1171-1183.
[3] Ruel, J. C. 2000 Factors Influencing Windthrow in Balsam Fir Forests: Forest Ecology and Management. 135 (1-3): Pp. 169-178.
[4] Byrne, K. E. 2011 Mechanistic Modelling of windthrow in Spatial Complex Mixed Species Stands. At Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia. PhD Thesis.
[5] Nivert J. P. 2001 Factors Affecting Stand Stability, Forest Enterprise 139: Pp. 17-25.
[6] Navratil, S. 1996 Silvicultural systems for managing deciduous and mixed wood stands with white spruce understory. In Silvicultural of temperate and boreal broadleaf-conifer mixture. Edited by P.G. Comeau and K.D. Thomas. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria. Pp. 35–46..

Summary: Water has already become a scarce resource in many parts of the world. This is due to rapid population growth and industrialization; lifestyle changes the thoughtless pollution of good water. Global warming and climate change will be the additional factors in the future. Water conservation and reuse are therefore becoming more and more important. Domestic waste water contains organic and inorganic matter in suspended, colloidal and dissolved forms. The concentration in the waste water depends on the original concentration in the water supply and the uses to which the water has been put. The present study deals with analysis and reuse of domestic waste water. For agricultural reuse the waste water may need to undergo the usual preliminary, primary and secondary treatment steps, generally undertaken to make the waste water fit for reuse or discharge to the environment.
Key Words: Water scarcity, Collection & Analysis of Domestic waste water, reuse of waste water, water treatment, irrigation.

[1]. Gupta, I.C.(1999) Use of Saline Water in Agriculture. A Study of Arid & semi Arid Zones in India. Revised Edition Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Dehli,
[2]. Pescod M.BWaste(1994) Water Treatment and Reuse in Agriculture. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur , pg1.
[3]. Richards L.A. (1954) Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soil. USDAHbk 60, pg.160.
[4]. Eton, F.M.(1950) Significance of Carbonates in Irrigation Waters. Soil Sci.69:,pg 123-33.
[5]. Garg, S.K.(2012) Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution, Khanna Publishers, New Dehli , pg.210.

Abstract: Heavy metals have the properties of biological accumulation, toxicity and environmental stability, hence consumption of drinking water containing heavy metals can jeopardize human health. One of these heavy metals is cadmium that its long-term exposure causes kidney diseases, osteoporosis, cancer and cardiovascular disease. In this cross-sectional study which was conducted in Minab, 100 samples of tap water were collected from 10 regions during December and January of 2014. Cadmium concentration was measured by graphite flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry of AAS8000 model. Then, its non-carcinogenic risk was calculated through EPA equations. Range and mean concentration of Cadmium in December and January is ND-4.6 μg/l, 1.8±0.69 μg/l and ND-3.6 μg/l, 1.6±0.6 μg/l, respectively. So, the mean concentration of Cadmium is 1.7±0.64 μg/l. The mean of daily chronic intake and non-carcinogenic risk of Minab population is 0.00005 μg/kg-day and 0.095. The mean concentration of Cadmium tap drinking water is lower than WHO and EPA standard limits. Since the non-carcinogenic risk is lower than 1, thus it can be said that Minab city is in the safe area in terms of non-carcinogenic risk of Cadmium of the drinking water. But, Valiasr and Soleghanareashave the highest and lowest non-carcinogenic risk, respectively.
Keywords: concentration of Cadmium, drinking water, chronic daily intake and non-carcinogenic ris.

[1]. Albaji, A., p. ziarati, and R. Shiralipour, Mercury and Lead Contamination Study of Drinking Water in Ahvaz ,Iran. International Journal of Farming and Allied Sciences, 2013. 2(19): p. 751-755.
[2]. Lesmana, S.O., et al., Studies on potential applications of biomass for the separation of heavy metals from water and wastewater. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 2009. 44(1): p. 19-41.
[3]. Muhammad, S., M.T. Shah, and S. Khan, Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 2011. 98(2): p. 334-343.
[4]. Patrick, D.R., Toxic air pollution handbook. 1994.
[5]. Pekey, H., D. Karakaş, and M. Bakoglu, Source apportionment of trace metals in surface waters of a polluted stream using multivariate statistical analyses. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2004. 49(9): p. 809-818.

Abstract: The prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) in children under 5 has commonly been attributed to exposure to polluted indoor air from biomass combustion. In Kenya, Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) accounted for 67% of outpatient morbidity cases in children under 5 and 41% of outpatient morbidity cases in children under 5 in Nakuru Town. The cause that has been attributed to the high cases of respiratory infections in children living in rural areas is indoor air pollution from biomass combustion. Despite urban areas having a variation in household socioeconomic characteristics, clear studies have not been done to assess whether indoor air pollution from energy sources is an influencing factor on the presence of ARI in children under 5. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of household socioeconomic factors on the prevalence of ARI among children under 5. An observation and a cross-sectional household survey were conducted on 187 randomly selected households comprising of low-income and middle-income strata. The socioeconomic factors that had an influence on the presence of ARI in low-income households were, hours spent indoors and carpeting while none of the socioeconomic factors influenced the presence of ARI in middle-income households.
Keywords: Acute Respiratory Infections, Biomass, Household Socioeconomics, Indoor Air Pollution, Urban.

[1]. DiMaria, C. and Solan, M. (2012). Acute Respiratory Infection. Healthline. Retrieved from, http://www.healthline.com/health/acute-respiratory-disease. July 17, 2012.
[2]. Government of Kenya, Statistical Abstract 2011. Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2011.
[3]. W. Moturi, W, Risk Factors for indoor air pollution in rural households in Mauche division, Molo district, Kenya. Africa Health Sciences, 10(3), 2010, 230-234.
[4]. M. Ezzati, & D. Kammen, Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: an exposure-response study. The Lancet, 358, 2001, 619-624.
[5]. V.K. Mishra, R.D. Retherford, and K.R. Smith, Biomass Cooking Fuels and Prevalence of Tuberculosis in India. The International Journal of Infectious Disease, 3, 1999, 119-129.